Release: 1.4.31 | Release Date: January 20, 2022

# SQLAlchemy 1.4 Documentation

# Mapping Python Classes

SQLAlchemy historically features two distinct styles of mapper configuration. The original mapping API is commonly referred to as “classical” style, whereas the more automated style of mapping is known as “declarative” style. SQLAlchemy now refers to these two mapping styles as imperative mapping and declarative mapping.

Both styles may be used interchangeably, as the end result of each is exactly the same - a user-defined class that has a `Mapper` configured against a selectable unit, typically represented by a `Table` object.

Both imperative and declarative mapping begin with an ORM `registry` object, which maintains a set of classes that are mapped. This registry is present for all mappings.

Changed in version 1.4: Declarative and classical mapping are now referred to as “declarative” and “imperative” mapping, and are unified internally, all originating from the `registry` construct that represents a collection of related mappings.

The full suite of styles can be hierarchically organized as follows:

- Declarative Mapping
    - Using `declarative_base()` Base class w/ metaclass

        - Declarative Table

        - Imperative Table (a.k.a. “hybrid table”)

    - Using `registry.mapped()` Declarative Decorator

        - Declarative Table - combine `registry.mapped()` with `__tablename__`

        - Imperative Table (Hybrid) - combine `registry.mapped()` with `__table__`

        - Declarative Mapping with Dataclasses and Attrs

            - Example One - Dataclasses with Imperative Table

            - Example Two - Dataclasses with Declarative Table

            - Example Three - attrs with Imperative Table

- Imperative (a.k.a. “classical” mapping)
    - Using `registry.map_imperatively()`

        - Imperative Mapping with Dataclasses and Attrs

## Declarative Mapping

The Declarative Mapping is the typical way that mappings are constructed in modern SQLAlchemy. The most common pattern is to first construct a base class using the `declarative_base()` function, which will apply the declarative mapping process to all subclasses that derive from it. Below features a declarative base which is then used in a declarative table mapping:

    from sqlalchemy import Column, Integer, String, ForeignKey
    from sqlalchemy.orm import declarative_base

    # declarative base class
    Base = declarative_base()

    # an example mapping using the base
    class User(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'user'

        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        name = Column(String)
        fullname = Column(String)
        nickname = Column(String)

Above, the `declarative_base()` callable returns a new base class from which new classes to be mapped may inherit from, as above a new mapped class `User` is constructed.

The base class refers to a `registry` object that maintains a collection of related mapped classes. The `declarative_base()` function is in fact shorthand for first creating the registry with the `registry` constructor, and then generating a base class using the `registry.generate_base()` method:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry

    # equivalent to Base = declarative_base()

    mapper_registry = registry()
    Base = mapper_registry.generate_base()

The `registry` is used directly in order to access a variety of mapping styles to suit different use cases:

- Declarative Mapping using a Decorator (no declarative base) - declarative mapping using a decorator, rather than a base class.

- Imperative (a.k.a. Classical) Mappings - imperative mapping, specifying all mapping arguments directly rather than scanning a class.

Documentation for Declarative mapping continues at Mapping Classes with Declarative.

See also

Mapping Classes with Declarative

### Creating an Explicit Base Non-Dynamically (for use with mypy, similar)

SQLAlchemy includes a Mypy plugin that automatically accommodates for the dynamically generated `Base` class delivered by SQLAlchemy functions like `declarative_base()`. This plugin works along with a new set of typing stubs published at sqlalchemy2-stubs.

When this plugin is not in use, or when using other PEP 484 tools which may not know how to interpret this class, the declarative base class may be produced in a fully explicit fashion using the `DeclarativeMeta` directly as follows:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
    from sqlalchemy.orm.decl_api import DeclarativeMeta

    mapper_registry = registry()

    class Base(metaclass=DeclarativeMeta):
        __abstract__ = True

        # these are supplied by the sqlalchemy2-stubs, so may be omitted
        # when they are installed
        registry = mapper_registry
        metadata = mapper_registry.metadata

        __init__ = mapper_registry.constructor

The above `Base` is equivalent to one created using the `registry.generate_base()` method and will be fully understood by type analysis tools without the use of plugins.

See also

Mypy / Pep-484 Support for ORM Mappings - background on the Mypy plugin which applies the above structure automatically when running Mypy.

### Declarative Mapping using a Decorator (no declarative base)

As an alternative to using the “declarative base” class is to apply declarative mapping to a class explicitly, using either an imperative technique similar to that of a “classical” mapping, or more succinctly by using a decorator. The `registry.mapped()` function is a class decorator that can be applied to any Python class with no hierarchy in place. The Python class otherwise is configured in declarative style normally:

    from sqlalchemy import Column, Integer, String, Text, ForeignKey

    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
    from sqlalchemy.orm import relationship

    mapper_registry = registry()

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    class User:
        __tablename__ = 'user'

        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        name = Column(String)

        addresses = relationship("Address", back_populates="user")

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    class Address:
        __tablename__ = 'address'

        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        user_id = Column(ForeignKey("user.id"))
        email_address = Column(String)

        user = relationship("User", back_populates="addresses")

Above, the same `registry` that we’d use to generate a declarative base class via its `registry.generate_base()` method may also apply a declarative-style mapping to a class without using a base. When using the above style, the mapping of a particular class will only proceed if the decorator is applied to that class directly. For inheritance mappings, the decorator should be applied to each subclass:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
    mapper_registry = registry()

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    class Person:
        __tablename__ = "person"

        person_id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        type = Column(String, nullable=False)

        __mapper_args__ = {

            "polymorphic_on": type,
            "polymorphic_identity": "person"
        }

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    class Employee(Person):
        __tablename__ = "employee"

        person_id = Column(ForeignKey("person.person_id"), primary_key=True)

        __mapper_args__ = {
            "polymorphic_identity": "employee"
        }

Both the “declarative table” and “imperative table” styles of declarative mapping may be used with the above mapping style.

The decorator form of mapping is particularly useful when combining a SQLAlchemy declarative mapping with other forms of class declaration, notably the Python `dataclasses` module. See the next section.

### Declarative Mapping with Dataclasses and Attrs

The dataclasses module, added in Python 3.7, provides a `@dataclass` class decorator to automatically generate boilerplate definitions of `__init__()`, `__eq__()`, `__repr()__`, etc. methods. Another very popular library that does the same, and much more, is attrs. Both libraries make use of class decorators in order to scan a class for attributes that define the class’ behavior, which are then used to generate methods, documentation, and annotations.

The `registry.mapped()` class decorator allows the declarative mapping of a class to occur after the class has been fully constructed, allowing the class to be processed by other class decorators first. The `@dataclass` and `@attr.s` decorators may therefore be applied first before the ORM mapping process proceeds via the `registry.mapped()` decorator or via the `registry.map_imperatively()` method discussed in a later section.

Mapping with `@dataclass` or `@attr.s` may be used in a straightforward way with Declarative with Imperative Table (a.k.a. Hybrid Declarative) style, where the the `Table`, which means that it is defined separately and associated with the class via the `__table__`. For dataclasses specifically, Declarative Table is also supported.

New in version 1.4.0b2: Added support for full declarative mapping when using dataclasses.

When attributes are defined using `dataclasses`, the `@dataclass` decorator consumes them but leaves them in place on the class. SQLAlchemy’s mapping process, when it encounters an attribute that normally is to be mapped to a `Column`, checks explicitly if the attribute is part of a Dataclasses setup, and if so will replace the class-bound dataclass attribute with its usual mapped properties. The `__init__` method created by `@dataclass` is left intact. In contrast, the `@attr.s` decorator actually removes its own class-bound attributes after the decorator runs, so that SQLAlchemy’s mapping process takes over these attributes without any issue.

New in version 1.4: Added support for direct mapping of Python dataclasses, where the `Mapper` will now detect attributes that are specific to the `@dataclasses` module and replace them at mapping time, rather than skipping them as is the default behavior for any class attribute that’s not part of the mapping.

#### Example One - Dataclasses with Imperative Table

An example of a mapping using `@dataclass` using Declarative with Imperative Table (a.k.a. Hybrid Declarative) is as follows:

    from __future__ import annotations

    from dataclasses import dataclass
    from dataclasses import field
    from typing import List
    from typing import Optional

    from sqlalchemy import Column
    from sqlalchemy import ForeignKey
    from sqlalchemy import Integer
    from sqlalchemy import String
    from sqlalchemy import Table
    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
    from sqlalchemy.orm import relationship

    mapper_registry = registry()

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    @dataclass
    class User:
        __table__ = Table(
            "user",
            mapper_registry.metadata,
            Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
            Column("name", String(50)),
            Column("fullname", String(50)),
            Column("nickname", String(12)),
        )
        id: int = field(init=False)
        name: Optional[str] = None
        fullname: Optional[str] = None
        nickname: Optional[str] = None
        addresses: List[Address] = field(default_factory=list)

        __mapper_args__ = {   # type: ignore
            "properties" : {
                "addresses": relationship("Address")
            }
        }

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    @dataclass
    class Address:
        __table__ = Table(
            "address",
            mapper_registry.metadata,
            Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
            Column("user_id", Integer, ForeignKey("user.id")),
            Column("email_address", String(50)),
        )
        id: int = field(init=False)
        user_id: int = field(init=False)
        email_address: Optional[str] = None

In the above example, the `User.id`, `Address.id`, and `Address.user_id` attributes are defined as `field(init=False)`. This means that parameters for these won’t be added to `__init__()` methods, but `Session` will still be able to set them after getting their values during flush from autoincrement or other default value generator. To allow them to be specified in the constructor explicitly, they would instead be given a default value of `None`.

For a `relationship()` to be declared separately, it needs to be specified directly within the `mapper.properties` dictionary passed to the `mapper()`. An alternative to this approach is in the next example.

#### Example Two - Dataclasses with Declarative Table

The fully declarative approach requires that `Column` objects are declared as class attributes, which when using dataclasses would conflict with the dataclass-level attributes. An approach to combine these together is to make use of the `metadata` attribute on the `dataclass.field` object, where SQLAlchemy-specific mapping information may be supplied. Declarative supports extraction of these parameters when the class specifies the attribute `__sa_dataclass_metadata_key__`. This also provides a more succinct method of indicating the `relationship()` association:

    from __future__ import annotations

    from dataclasses import dataclass
    from dataclasses import field
    from typing import List

    from sqlalchemy import Column
    from sqlalchemy import ForeignKey
    from sqlalchemy import Integer
    from sqlalchemy import String
    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
    from sqlalchemy.orm import relationship

    mapper_registry = registry()

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    @dataclass
    class User:
        __tablename__ = "user"

        __sa_dataclass_metadata_key__ = "sa"
        id: int = field(
            init=False, metadata={"sa": Column(Integer, primary_key=True)}
        )
        name: str = field(default=None, metadata={"sa": Column(String(50))})
        fullname: str = field(default=None, metadata={"sa": Column(String(50))})
        nickname: str = field(default=None, metadata={"sa": Column(String(12))})
        addresses: List[Address] = field(
            default_factory=list, metadata={"sa": relationship("Address")}
        )

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    @dataclass
    class Address:
        __tablename__ = "address"
        __sa_dataclass_metadata_key__ = "sa"
        id: int = field(
            init=False, metadata={"sa": Column(Integer, primary_key=True)}
        )
        user_id: int = field(
            init=False, metadata={"sa": Column(ForeignKey("user.id"))}
        )
        email_address: str = field(
            default=None, metadata={"sa": Column(String(50))}
        )

##### Using Declarative Mixins with Dataclasses

In the section Composing Mapped Hierarchies with Mixins, Declarative Mixin classes are introduced. One requirement of declarative mixins is that certain constructs that can’t be easily duplicated must be given as callables, using the `declared_attr` decorator, such as in the example at Mixing in Relationships:

    class RefTargetMixin(object):
        @declared_attr
        def target_id(cls):
            return Column('target_id', ForeignKey('target.id'))

        @declared_attr
        def target(cls):
            return relationship("Target")

This form is supported within the Dataclasses `field()` object by using a lambda to indicate the SQLAlchemy construct inside the `field()`. Using `declared_attr()` to surround the lambda is optional. If we wanted to produce our `User` class above where the ORM fields came from a mixin that is itself a dataclass, the form would be:

    @dataclass
    class UserMixin:
        __tablename__ = "user"

        __sa_dataclass_metadata_key__ = "sa"

        id: int = field(
            init=False, metadata={"sa": Column(Integer, primary_key=True)}
        )

        addresses: List[Address] = field(
            default_factory=list, metadata={"sa": lambda: relationship("Address")}
        )

    @dataclass
    class AddressMixin:
        __tablename__ = "address"
        __sa_dataclass_metadata_key__ = "sa"
        id: int = field(
            init=False, metadata={"sa": Column(Integer, primary_key=True)}
        )
        user_id: int = field(
            init=False, metadata={"sa": lambda: Column(ForeignKey("user.id"))}
        )
        email_address: str = field(
            default=None, metadata={"sa": Column(String(50))}
        )

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    class User(UserMixin):
        pass

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    class Address(AddressMixin):
      pass

New in version 1.4.2: Added support for “declared attr” style mixin attributes, namely `relationship()` constructs as well as `Column` objects with foreign key declarations, to be used within “Dataclasses with Declarative Table” style mappings.

#### Example Three - attrs with Imperative Table

A mapping using `@attr.s`, in conjunction with imperative table:

    import attr

    # other imports

    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry

    mapper_registry = registry()

    @mapper_registry.mapped
    @attr.s
    class User:
        __table__ = Table(
            "user",
            mapper_registry.metadata,
            Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
            Column("name", String(50)),
            Column("fullname", String(50)),
            Column("nickname", String(12)),
        )
        id = attr.ib()
        name = attr.ib()
        fullname = attr.ib()
        nickname = attr.ib()
        addresses = attr.ib()

    # other classes...

`@dataclass` and attrs mappings may also be used with classical mappings, i.e. with the `registry.map_imperatively()` function. See the section Imperative Mapping with Dataclasses and Attrs for a similar example.

## Imperative (a.k.a. Classical) Mappings

An imperative or classical mapping refers to the configuration of a mapped class using the `registry.map_imperatively()` method, where the target class does not include any declarative class attributes. The “map imperative” style has historically been achieved using the `mapper()` function directly, however this function now expects that a `sqlalchemy.orm.registry()` is present.

Deprecated since version 1.4: Using the `mapper()` function directly to achieve a classical mapping directly is deprecated. The `registry.map_imperatively()` method retains the identical functionality while also allowing for string-based resolution of other mapped classes from within the registry.

In “classical” form, the table metadata is created separately with the `Table` construct, then associated with the `User` class via the `registry.map_imperatively()` method:

    from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, Integer, String, ForeignKey
    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry

    mapper_registry = registry()

    user_table = Table(
        'user',
        mapper_registry.metadata,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('name', String(50)),
        Column('fullname', String(50)),
        Column('nickname', String(12))
    )

    class User:
        pass

    mapper_registry.map_imperatively(User, user_table)

Information about mapped attributes, such as relationships to other classes, are provided via the `properties` dictionary. The example below illustrates a second `Table` object, mapped to a class called `Address`, then linked to `User` via `relationship()`:

    address = Table('address', metadata_obj,
                Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
                Column('user_id', Integer, ForeignKey('user.id')),
                Column('email_address', String(50))
                )

    mapper_registry.map_imperatively(User, user, properties={
        'addresses' : relationship(Address, backref='user', order_by=address.c.id)
    })

    mapper_registry.map_imperatively(Address, address)

When using classical mappings, classes must be provided directly without the benefit of the “string lookup” system provided by Declarative. SQL expressions are typically specified in terms of the `Table` objects, i.e. `address.c.id` above for the `Address` relationship, and not `Address.id`, as `Address` may not yet be linked to table metadata, nor can we specify a string here.

Some examples in the documentation still use the classical approach, but note that the classical as well as Declarative approaches are fully interchangeable. Both systems ultimately create the same configuration, consisting of a `Table`, user-defined class, linked together with a `mapper()`. When we talk about “the behavior of `mapper()`”, this includes when using the Declarative system as well - it’s still used, just behind the scenes.

### Imperative Mapping with Dataclasses and Attrs

As described in the section Declarative Mapping with Dataclasses and Attrs, the `@dataclass` decorator and the attrs library both work as class decorators that are applied to a class first, before it is passed to SQLAlchemy for mapping. Just like we can use the `registry.mapped()` decorator in order to apply declarative-style mapping to the class, we can also pass it to the `registry.map_imperatively()` method so that we may pass all `Table` and `Mapper` configuration imperatively to the function rather than having them defined on the class itself as declarative class variables:

    from __future__ import annotations

    from dataclasses import dataclass
    from dataclasses import field
    from typing import List

    from sqlalchemy import Column
    from sqlalchemy import ForeignKey
    from sqlalchemy import Integer
    from sqlalchemy import MetaData
    from sqlalchemy import String
    from sqlalchemy import Table
    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry
    from sqlalchemy.orm import relationship

    mapper_registry = registry()

    @dataclass
    class User:
        id: int = field(init=False)
        name: str = None
        fullname: str = None
        nickname: str = None
        addresses: List[Address] = field(default_factory=list)

    @dataclass
    class Address:
        id: int = field(init=False)
        user_id: int = field(init=False)
        email_address: str = None

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

    user = Table(
        'user',
        metadata_obj,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('name', String(50)),
        Column('fullname', String(50)),
        Column('nickname', String(12)),
    )

    address = Table(
        'address',
        metadata_obj,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('user_id', Integer, ForeignKey('user.id')),
        Column('email_address', String(50)),
    )

    mapper_registry.map_imperatively(User, user, properties={
        'addresses': relationship(Address, backref='user', order_by=address.c.id),
    })

    mapper_registry.map_imperatively(Address, address)

## Mapper Configuration Overview

With all mapping forms, the mapping of the class can be configured in many ways by passing construction arguments that become part of the `Mapper` object. The function which ultimately receives these arguments is the `mapper()` function, which are delivered to it originating from one of the front-facing mapping functions defined on the `registry` object.

There are four general classes of configuration information that the `mapper()` function looks for:

### The class to be mapped

This is a class that we construct in our application. There are generally no restrictions on the structure of this class. 1 When a Python class is mapped, there can only be one `Mapper` object for the class. 2

When mapping with the declarative mapping style, the class to be mapped is either a subclass of the declarative base class, or is handled by a decorator or function such as `registry.mapped()`.

When mapping with the imperative style, the class is passed directly as the `map_imperatively.class_` argument.

### The table, or other from clause object

In the vast majority of common cases this is an instance of `Table`. For more advanced use cases, it may also refer to any kind of `FromClause` object, the most common alternative objects being the `Subquery` and `Join` object.

When mapping with the declarative mapping style, the subject table is either generated by the declarative system based on the `__tablename__` attribute and the `Column` objects presented, or it is established via the `__table__` attribute. These two styles of configuration are presented at Declarative Table and Declarative with Imperative Table (a.k.a. Hybrid Declarative).

When mapping with the imperative style, the subject table is passed positionally as the `map_imperatively.local_table` argument.

In contrast to the “one mapper per class” requirement of a mapped class, the `Table` or other `FromClause` object that is the subject of the mapping may be associated with any number of mappings. The `Mapper` applies modifications directly to the user-defined class, but does not modify the given `Table` or other `FromClause` in any way.

### The properties dictionary

This is a dictionary of all of the attributes that will be associated with the mapped class. By default, the `Mapper` generates entries for this dictionary derived from the given `Table`, in the form of `ColumnProperty` objects which each refer to an individual `Column` of the mapped table. The properties dictionary will also contain all the other kinds of `MapperProperty` objects to be configured, most commonly instances generated by the `relationship()` construct.

When mapping with the declarative mapping style, the properties dictionary is generated by the declarative system by scanning the class to be mapped for appropriate attributes. See the section Defining Mapped Properties with Declarative for notes on this process.

When mapping with the imperative style, the properties dictionary is passed directly as the `properties` argument to `registry.map_imperatively()`, which will pass it along to the `mapper.properties` parameter.

### Other mapper configuration parameters

These flags are documented at `mapper()`.

When mapping with the declarative mapping style, additional mapper configuration arguments are configured via the `__mapper_args__` class attribute, documented at Mapper Configuration Options with Declarative

When mapping with the imperative style, keyword arguments are passed to the to `registry.map_imperatively()` method which passes them along to the `mapper()` function.

1

  When running under Python 2, a Python 2 “old style” class is the only kind of class that isn’t compatible. When running code on Python 2, all classes must extend from the Python `object` class. Under Python 3 this is always the case.

2

  There is a legacy feature known as a “non primary mapper”, where additional `Mapper` objects may be associated with a class that’s already mapped, however they don’t apply instrumentation to the class. This feature is deprecated as of SQLAlchemy 1.3.

## Mapped Class Behavior

Across all styles of mapping using the `registry` object, the following behaviors are common:

### Default Constructor

The `registry` applies a default constructor, i.e. `__init__` method, to all mapped classes that don’t explicitly have their own `__init__` method. The behavior of this method is such that it provides a convenient keyword constructor that will accept as optional keyword arguments all the attributes that are named. E.g.:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import declarative_base

    Base = declarative_base()

    class User(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'user'

        id = Column(...)
        name = Column(...)
        fullname = Column(...)

An object of type `User` above will have a constructor which allows `User` objects to be created as:

    u1 = User(name='some name', fullname='some fullname')

The above constructor may be customized by passing a Python callable to the `registry.constructor` parameter which provides the desired default `__init__()` behavior.

The constructor also applies to imperative mappings:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import registry

    mapper_registry = registry()

    user_table = Table(
        'user',
        mapper_registry.metadata,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('name', String(50))
    )

    class User:
        pass

    mapper_registry.map_imperatively(User, user_table)

The above class, mapped imperatively as described at Imperative (a.k.a. Classical) Mappings, will also feature the default constructor associated with the `registry`.

New in version 1.4: classical mappings now support a standard configuration-level constructor when they are mapped via the `registry.map_imperatively()` method.

### Runtime Introspection of Mapped classes and Mappers

A class that is mapped using `registry` will also feature a few attributes that are common to all mappings:

- The `__mapper__` attribute will refer to the `Mapper` that is associated with the class:

      mapper = User.__mapper__

  This `Mapper` is also what’s returned when using the `inspect()` function against the mapped class:

      from sqlalchemy import inspect

      mapper = inspect(User)

- The `__table__` attribute will refer to the `Table`, or more generically to the `FromClause` object, to which the class is mapped:

      table = User.__table__

  This `FromClause` is also what’s returned when using the `Mapper.local_table` attribute of the `Mapper`:

      table = inspect(User).local_table

  For a single-table inheritance mapping, where the class is a subclass that does not have a table of its own, the `Mapper.local_table` attribute as well as the `.__table__` attribute will be `None`. To retrieve the “selectable” that is actually selected from during a query for this class, this is available via the `Mapper.selectable` attribute:

      table = inspect(User).selectable

### Mapper Inspection Features

As illustrated in the previous section, the `Mapper` object is available from any mapped class, regardless of method, using the Runtime Inspection API system. Using the `inspect()` function, one can acquire the `Mapper` from a mapped class:

    >>> from sqlalchemy import inspect
    >>> insp = inspect(User)

Detailed information is available including `Mapper.columns`:

    >>> insp.columns
    <sqlalchemy.util._collections.OrderedProperties object at 0x102f407f8>

This is a namespace that can be viewed in a list format or via individual names:

    >>> list(insp.columns)
    [Column('id', Integer(), table=<user>, primary_key=True, nullable=False), Column('name', String(length=50), table=<user>), Column('fullname', String(length=50), table=<user>), Column('nickname', String(length=50), table=<user>)]
    >>> insp.columns.name
    Column('name', String(length=50), table=<user>)

Other namespaces include `Mapper.all_orm_descriptors`, which includes all mapped attributes as well as hybrids, association proxies:

    >>> insp.all_orm_descriptors
    <sqlalchemy.util._collections.ImmutableProperties object at 0x1040e2c68>
    >>> insp.all_orm_descriptors.keys()
    ['fullname', 'nickname', 'name', 'id']

As well as `Mapper.column_attrs`:

    >>> list(insp.column_attrs)
    [<ColumnProperty at 0x10403fde0; id>, <ColumnProperty at 0x10403fce8; name>, <ColumnProperty at 0x1040e9050; fullname>, <ColumnProperty at 0x1040e9148; nickname>]
    >>> insp.column_attrs.name
    <ColumnProperty at 0x10403fce8; name>
    >>> insp.column_attrs.name.expression
    Column('name', String(length=50), table=<user>)

See also

Runtime Inspection API

`Mapper`

`InstanceState`